Turkish History and Turkey: An overview 

by Narin Elalmis¹  

Turkey has a magnificent past, and is a land full of historic treasures from 13 successive civilizations spanning 10,000 years. You can see the historical ruins everywhere you go in Turkey . In this article, I will try to give you a brief historical background on who the Turks are, where we are coming from and where are we going?

Since the term “ Central Asia ” is too vague to describe the location of the original Turkish heartland, it can most precisely be described as the vast grassland region that spreads north of Afghanistan and the Himalaya Mountains , west and northwest of  China . The Otuken mountain-forest, the Altai and the Tien-Shan Mountains have historically been popular refugiums for the Turks and therefore have received legendary status in Turkish mythology. The Turkish language belongs to the Turkic language family, which is a subfamily of the Altaic language group. Modern Turkish is a descendant of Ottoman Turkish and of Old Anatolian Turkish, which was introduced by the Seljuks into Anatolia in the late 11th  century.  

By tradition, Turks lead nomadic pastoral lifestyle. They would normally live in tent villages raising sheep, goats, horses, camels, and  cattle. In the winter, they would set up camp in mountain valleys and in the summer they would seek pastures higher up in the  mountains. This was the standard nomadic pattern of movement. Before the Turks were Islamized gradually from the 10th century onwards, they practiced shamanism, a religion based on the elements of nature and the reliance on shamans as intermediaries between the realms of Earth and Heaven. Today, all Turks are Sunni or Shiite Muslims with the exception of the Chuvash , Yakut,and the Gagaoguz.

Had the Turks remained solely in their tribes, they would have had little effect on world history, but they did not. When necessary the Turkish tribes proved able to cooperate. Out of mutual necessity they joined together for defense or conquest under strong leaders to form armies and ultimately empires. 

Infact, historically, Turks have shown themselves to be excellent state and empire builders. The first Turkish Empire to use the ethnonym “Turk” was the Gokturk Kaganate which emerged in 532 AD. They formed a formidable empire that stretched from Mongolia and the northern frontier of China to the Black Sea . 

The earliest written example of the Turkish language comes from the Gokturks, which was found in Mongolia near the Orkhon River and is thus known as the Orkhon inscriptions. Turks would go on to form  numerous empires such as that of the Uygurs, Karahanids, Mughals, Khazars, Kuman-Kipcaks, Mamlukes, Turco-Mongols, Ghaznevids and the Seljuks.

Once the Turks became Muslims, Middle Eastern rulers were more readily able to use them as they might use any other group of Muslim troops, as mercenaries. By the tenth century the Islamic Empire was breaking into small units, each accepting the rule of the Caliph in theory, but actually independent. In eastern Iran , Muslim rulers and governors hired confederations of Turkish tribes to fight on their behalf. Once the Turks realized they held the balance of power they took charge themselves. One of these groups, the Ghaznavids, took Afghanistan , part of eastern Iran , and much of India . Another, the Seljuks moved to the west. The Great Seljuks, a clan of the Oguz Turks, opened the way for an influx of the Turks into Anatolia in the 11th century after their crushing defeat of the Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071. The Seljuks after their predecessors the Ghaznevids and the Karahanids took on the role as the champions of Sunni Islam and during their reign, were the most powerful and glorious Islamic Empire of its age. 

At its height, the empire encompassed Mesopotamia , Syria , Palestine , and Iran . Islamic culture flourished under the Seljuks who introduced a network of colleges and built among others, the magnificent Isfahan mosque. It was also under the Seljuks that Islamic mystical movements and literature flourished. Celalettin Rumi was also a product of this age. The systems of government originated or developed by the Great Seljuks  were to provide a basis for later Turkish rule. The great Seljuk Turks had created a state system, a standing army, and a court that supported great artists, poets, and theologians, therefore transforming the raiding nomadic Turks into rulers. 

The most famous and perhaps greatest of all Turkish empires was the Ottoman Empire, which was one of the most powerful, tolerant, and long-lasting empires in world history. The Western world called them Ottoman, but their Turkish name is Osmanli, taken from the first ruler of the Ottoman state, Osman. It spanned six centuries from 1281 and came to an end in 1923 when Turkey became a republic under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. At the height of its power, the Empire included modern Albania, Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania and the islands of the eastern Mediterranean; parts of Hungary and Russia; Iraq, Syria, Palestine the Caucasus and Egypt; North Africa as far west as Algeria; and parts of Arabia. The Empire astonishingly evolved from a small border principality under the founder Osman to a vast, unitary multi-ethnic state. 

It seemed amazing at the time, 1453 AD, that this previously obscure clan breached the walls and conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople . But the Byzantine Empire , weakened by repeated Mongolian sacking, suffering from subsequent internal confusion, and with no powerful leadership to guide them, fell to the Turkish invaders. Under Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottomans rebuilt the devastated city of Constantinople into the fabulously wealthy capital they renamed Istanbul, with large warehouses, the Covered Bazaar, Topkapi Palace, and several mosque complexes. Under Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-66) the power and splendor of the Empire reached its zenith and is often referred to as the Golden Age of Ottoman History. During this age, the Empire was the pre-eminent world power and according to the Italian platonic philosopher Tommaso Campanella Ottoman society at the time was the closest example of his utopian societal model. The Empire introduced significant military innovations such as the first use of canons in siege warfare. During the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent the empire became the center of Islamic culture, attracting the finest intellectuals from all over the Islamic world. A virtual renaissance occurred in literature, the arts, the sciences and he set a new standard of jurisprudence. 

The most beautiful and highly renowned mosques of the Islamic world were built by the Ottomans, such as the Suleymaniye and the Selimiye mosques, which were designed by the great architect Mimar Sinan. The Ottoman Empire had a state identity which provided the most tolerant administration of its age throughout the Middle Ages and the New Age. In fact, throughout the six hundred years of its administration it was able to hold together people of  different religions, languages and races and undertook an important role in the protection of cultures and languages of these nations by providing freedom of religion and conscience. Furthermore, it contributed significantly to the history of civilization with both scientific and cultural masterpieces due to its cultural, scientific, artistic and state administrative experience and acquisitions of the previous Turkish states. 

The Ottoman Empire created rare masterpieces with its unique architecture, stone and wood carving, the art of tile-making, ornamentation, the art of miniature painting, calligraphy and bookbinding. Above all, it was influencial for hundreds of years in world politics. The original splendor created by the Ottomans remains everywhere in Turkey today.

However, the Ottoman Empire lost its economic and military superiority vis-à-vis Europe , which had developed rapidly with the Renaissance and the geographical discoveries starting with the sixteenth century and failed to adapt to the new developments. Thus, the balance of power developed in favor of the European States starting in the same century. The nationalist movements that started in the nineteenth century and the rebellions of the Balkan nations organized and supported by the European States and Russia brought about the emergence of independent states within the Ottoman territories in the Balkans. The military defeats which exacerbated the process of dissolution of the Empire forced the Ottoman administration to take steps to modernize the country. Thus, reform efforts were made constantly in the Empire throughout the nineteenth century.  

The most significant characteristic of the First Constitutional Period in 1876, which coincided with the reign of Sultan  Abdülhamid II (1876-1909), was that it provided a constitution in the Western model for the first time. The constitution, which had been prepared by a group of intellectuals called the "Young Turks" forced Sultan Abdülhamid to accept this constitution and the Ottoman state was transformed into a constitutional state. However, Sultan Abdülhamid disbanded the Parliament in 1877 and terminated constitutional rule, using the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1879 as a pretext. The Committee of Union and Progress which started activities as an opposition organization founded by the Young Turks, first  forced the Sultan to repromulgate the Constitution in 1908 and later seized power. However, the liberalization which started after  Abdülhamid with the Second Constitution did not last long. The Tripoli War (1911-1912) against the Italians and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) which erupted in the wake of these political developments weakened the new administration and the environment of freedom that started with the Second Constitution transformed the democratic environment into single-party autocracy. The territories of the Ottoman State , which had allied with Germany in the First World War (1914-1918), were occupied by Britain , France , Russia and Greece following the Moudhros Armistice signed in 1918, after the Central Powers were defeated. The occupation of the homeland and the helplessness of the İstanbul government left no other  choice but resistance for the Turkish people in Anatolia and Thrace . The Greek occupation accelerated the establishment of small defense fronts and the formation of regional resistance organizations.

Thus the National War of Independence began in 1919 which was an effort to create a new state from the ruins of an Empire which had completed its life. These efforts lasted for four years because the imperialist states wanted to bring to life a new order suitable for their own political aims and interests from the ruins of this empire. The Turkish resistance movements were transformed into a complete war of independence when Mustafa Kemal landed at  Samsun as the Inspector of the 9th Army on 19 May 1919 . It achieved success against the armies supported by the large countries of the world and under very difficult conditions.  

Mustafa Kemal, who joined the Ottoman Army as a captain on 11 January 1905, proved his military talents on almost every front during the First World War. When the Ottoman Empire was considered to be defeated following the First World War, he was appointed Commander of the Lightning Armies. However, when this army was abolished, he returned to İstanbul. Mustafa Kemal, who understood that a political result could not be reached against the occupying powers which were oppressing the İstanbul Government, decided to go to Anatolia and carry on his struggle from there. He immediately started to organize national resistance and got in touch with all the army units and resistance organizations in Anatolia . He made the first call for   a national movement with the circular he issued in Amasya on 22 June 1919 . He organized this national struggle with the Erzurum and Sivas Congresses, giving it an official status. According to the National Pact program which took its final shape at the Sivas Congress, the territories where the Turks lived could not be partitioned in any form and limitations such as capitulations which would prevent the political, legal and financial development of the country would definitely not be accepted.

When the Entente Powers officially occupied İstanbul and disbanded the Parliament on 16 March, Mustafa Kemal declared that the sovereignty and life of the Ottoman Empire , which had lasted for six centuries, was ended. He announced that the Grand National Assembly would gather in Ankara , the headquarters of the national movement, on 23 April 1920 and the authority to represent the nation would only belong to this parliament as of this date. In fact, the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA), which undertook the duties of saving and administrating the country and obtaining complete independence for the country, started activities on 23 April 1920 with extraordinary authority. Mustafa Kemal was elected as the President.

The last connections between Ankara and İstanbul ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sevrès on 12 August 1920 . The agreement included very oppressive conditions for the Turks. According to the agreement, the Turks could be sovereign on only a small part of Anatolia and their state would be under the financial and military control of the foreign states.

The efforts to set up an Armenian state in Eastern Anatolia , by using the Treaty of Sevrès were made ineffective by the forces of the Army Commander Kazım Karabekir in this region. After the armistice was signed on 18 November 1920 , peace was obtained on the Eastern front by the Gümrü Agreement which was signed on 2 December 1920 . This was the first international agreement which was signed by the TGNA.  

On the Western front, the Greek Army which occupied İzmir on 15 May 1919 and started to spread throughout the Aegean region, was stopped by the First and Second İnönü Battles between January-April 1921. The Greek Army suffered a heavy defeat during the Sakarya Battles between August-September 1921. The Sakarya Battle victory provided significant diplomatic successes and France withdrew from Adana and the surroundings with the Ankara Agreement signed by Turkey and France in October 1921. Thus, another front was eliminated. After that, all the forces and resources of the country were gathered for a great attack to be made on the Western front. In fact, the Greek forces were defeated heavily during the Great Attack and Commander in Chief Battle between August-September 1922. İzmir was liberated on 9 September 1922 . This military success  would accelerate the founding of the Republic of Turkey . The Mudanya Armistice was signed between the Ankara Government and the Entente States on 11 October 1922 and it was decided to hold a conference in Lausanne one month later to discuss the conditions for a permanent peace treaty. However, when the Entente States also invited the İstanbul Government to send its  delegation to this conference along with the Ankara Government, the TGNA declared that the Caliphate was separated from the Sultanate and that the sultanate was abolished. Mehmed IV (Vahideddin), the last Ottoman Sultan, secretly fled aboard a British ship on 17 November 1922 .  

The Lausanne peace treaty negotiations, at which the Ankara Government participated as the sole representative, started on 21 November 1922 . The negotiations, at which İsmet İnönü presided over the Turkish delegation, were suspended in February  1923 due to disagreements especially on the future of capitulations. The negotiations, which restarted in April 1923, resulted  in the signing of the Lausanne Treaty on 24 July 1923. The treaty recognized the creation of a Turkish State with virtually the same borders as those of the National Pact of 1920 and guaranteed her complete independence. Thus, it marked the successful culmination of the National War of Independence.

The Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly saved the country from being partitioned and occupied with the National War of Independence. A few months following the signing of the Lausanne Treaty, in which the Allied powers and the world recognized the independence and sovereignty of Turkey, the Republican People's Party was established on 9 September 1923 and Mustafa Kemal was elected as its chairman. The administrative staff of the party was composed of the military staff who directed the national struggle and high-level bureaucrats. The party led by the leader and the hero of the Turkish War of Independence stood for modernizing and westernizing reforms in the political, judicial and educational fields. These developments, however, disturbed the conservative elements in the National Assembly. The discussions flared up on such issues as what would happen now that the sultanate was abolished and how the parliament would now act, with which authorities and on whose  behalf. The institutions and the office of the Caliphate, meanwhile stood in stark contradiction to the new administration. All these developments made a radical transformation compulsory.  

Thus, the Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in order to give the state a democratic form in the contemporary sense. Mustafa Kemal, the successful and great charismatic leader of the national struggle for independence, was elected unanimously as the first President of the Republic of Turkey . He appointed İsmet İnönü as the first Prime Minister. Four months later, the Caliphate, which was incompatible with the principle of republicanism, was abolished and the members of the Ottoman Dynasty were expatriated on 3 March 1924. Being aware of the fact that the separation of religious and state affairs and the provision of freedom of religion and conscience for individuals were among the prerequisites of forming a modern society, Mustafa Kemal initiated in the framework of the "principle of secularity" the most important changes.  

After the abolition of the Caliphate, a series of radical reforms were made in the institutions and mentality connected to the Caliphate. The Ministry of Shariah and Foundations was replaced by the Chairmanship of Religious Affairs and the Directorate of Foundations, both connected to the Prime Ministry. The religious school order was abolished on 3 March 1924 with the Unification of Education Law and all schools and educational matters were united under the Ministry of National Education. The Shariah Courts were replaced by secular courts with the Judicial Organization Law. The wearing of the  turban and fez that were symbols of the former order were banned and the "hat" became the official headgear, following the promulgation of the Hat Law on 25 November 1925 . Thus, the traditional symbols in attire, indicating differences of class, rank and religious order were removed. The international hour and calendar systems were adopted on 26 November 1925 . The dervish lodges and tombs and the titles of tariqahs (sects) were abolished on 25 November 1925 . A Turkish Civil Code was accepted on 17 February 1926 to replace the old civil code and the Shariah Laws which were the foundation stones of Ottoman law. The acceptance of the Turkish Civil Code made it necessary to secularize all legislation and the Code of Obligations, the Criminal Code and the Commercial Code were also rewritten according to contemporary principles. Important steps were taken concerning women's rights. Polygamy was forbidden and marriages, to be officially recognized, had to be performed in accordance with the civil code, not according to religious ceremonies as in the past. Also, a law was promulgated which made it necessary to get a court decree to get a divorce. Women obtained the right to vote and be elected in the municipal elections in 1930, in elections held for village councils in 1933 and in 1934, they obtained the right to vote and be elected  into the Turkish Grand National Assembly.  

One of the most important reforms initiated by Atatürk was the preparation of a new Turkish alphabet by a board of linguists and academicians and the law which envisaged the use of Latin letters was adopted on 1 November 1928 . The adoption of this new phonetic alphabet was an important step taken to help increase the literacy rate which had been very low. The old units of measurement and weight were changed in 1931. Commercial and economic transactions were facilitated with the acceptance of the metric system and a standard system of measurement was established throughout Turkey . The Surname Law was adopted on 21 June 1934 . Mustafa Kemal, the founder of the new Turkish State and Republic, was given the surname of "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks).  

The efforts to create a modern country based on secular foundations was also reflected in the Constitution. An amendment made to the Constitution in 1928 removed the clause which had stated that the religion of the state is Islam. A clause was put in the Constitution in 1937 stating that Turkey is a secular state. Along with these developments, Atatürk established the Turkish Historical Society in 1925 and Turkish Linguistic Society in 1932 in order to strengthen the foundations of the new national state and contribute to the development of a national consciousness among the Turkish people. Atatürk, with his dynamism, strong intuitions, accurate assessments of the balances of power and correct evaluations of domestic and foreign conditions, left behind a state which had heartily adopted the reforms and modernized institutions, which had taken significant steps in the direction of the Western model when he passed away on 10 November 1938.  From the ruins of the Ottoman Empire , at a time when almost all of the Islamic World was falling under the dominance of European imperial powers, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk managed not just to preserve but secure Turkey’s independence. Against all odds, he founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923, creating a democratic, secular Turkish state through the institution of revolutionary political and social reforms that included the adoption of a western code of jurisprudence and the Latin Alphabet, as well as the emancipation of women. The effects of his democratic reforms, still resonate today in Turkey and the rest of the world.

Turkey, which was officially invited to the San Francisco Conference on 5 March 1945, was among the founding members of the United Nations. In 1946, the start of the first military and economic aid from the United States with the implementation of the "Truman Doctrine" and the "Marshall Plan" strengthened the Western-oriented foundations of the Turkish foreign policy, which had been laid by İnönü. Turkey participated in the Korean War, became a member of NATO in 1952. And as you may all be aware that Turkey has been trying to enter the European Union with little success. 

Turkey’s identity is very unique indeed. One can go to any street in Istanbul and see the modern luxurious buildings along side the ancient ruins of the Rumeli Castle. One can see a Turkish woman walking by wearing a hicap, alongside a woman wearing almost nothing at all. Turks living in Turkey today have a split soul which reflects itself in our everyday lives, politics and foreign policy. There are those who wish to follow Ataturks footsteps, seeing themselves as part of Europe, secular, liberal and wanting to belong to the future of the western world, while there are those who are religious and wish to see Turkey to be ruled by religious Islamic laws of the Sheriat, and see themselves as Middle Easterners. Who are we and where we belong is a question we have not been able to answer yet.

¹ Narin Elalmis is a graduate of University of Toronto, Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations. She is currently pursuing her masters degree in Political Science. She can be reached at elalmis@hotmail.com    

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